The History of Color Theory: Must-Know Facts for Creatives

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If you were asked to think of the color blue, what would come to mind?

Maybe it would be the feeling of relaxation, calmness, serenity, or a sense of stability and reliability. Or it might be the image of the ocean, a cloudless sky, or blue eyes looking at you, all floating through your head. Whatever it would be, most likely you linked the color to certain ideas, objects, and emotions. These spontaneous associations are a universal human experience, and they are widely used in art, design, psychology, marketing, and numerous other fields.

The psychology of color theory makes the study of color a powerful tool in the hands of creatives. To unleash the full power of color, it is helpful to understand both basic artistic and scientific concepts as well as the history of color theory.

What is Color Theory?

Color theory is the collection of guidelines and rules in the realm of art and science that explain how humans perceive and apply color. It is further the visual effects of how colors mix, contrast, and match with each other, involving the message colors communicate. To define color theory, one must further refer to the color wheel and the differentiation between primary color, secondary color, and tertiary color.

The History of Color Theory: The Context

Humans invented the first pigments as early as 40,000 years ago. They combined soil, burnt charcoal, chalk, and animal fat to create a basic palette of five colors including yellow, red, brown, black, and white. Since then, colors, pigment theory, and theories of color have been subject to ongoing discovery both through artistic exploration and scientific advancement. Color theory in art and science has been advancing constantly.

How and why are humans able to perceive colours? Answers to this question have evolved over the centuries. Experts since ancient times have tried to decipher the composition of colors, challenged by grasping the technical workings and a modern understanding of colors theory.

For anyone occupied in the visual culture—artists, interior or graphic designers alike – the theory of colors and the science of color are essential elements of everyday work. This field of science encompasses the perception of colour by the human eye, the effects on the brain, art color theory, the origin of colors, as well as the theory meaning of electromagnetic radiation.[1] From scientific to artistic, color and color perceptions have fascinated humans for centuries. Knowledge has been obtained from both a scientific and artistic viewpoint, while both areas combined gave rise to insights into our visual experience.

A basic understanding of the color spectrum and color scheme definition is easy to grasp, yet color theory is a highly complex subject, and it can be a daunting task to both satisfy the art historical and the scientific aspects of the issue. Artistic color theory is concerned with the visual effects of color combination, while scientific color theory describes the nature of color matters by using multifaceted color models. For a better understanding of color theory, looking at the history of color theory as well as modern color theory is essential.

Color Theorists Through the Ages

Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE)

The first document about color theories originated in ancient Greece and was titled “On Colors”. For a long time, this color history text was attributed to Aristotle alone, yet it is nowadays broadly accepted that the Aristotle color theory was written by members of the Peripatetic School and the philosopher together, based on the color system they observed in nature around them.[2]

The document proposed that color was emitted by a deity through heavenly fire rays and that all colours were composed of brightness and darkness. It was believed that there were two basic primary colors, blue and yellow, derived from darkness and light, which related to the binary system found elsewhere in the world, e.g., in the duality of day and night, male and female, or stimulus and sedation. Based on those two primary colors, the Peripatetic School created a linear light theory of color which encompassed four further colors, ranging from the white light of noon to the black of the dark night.

The four other theory colors were found in between this range [3] and were thought to correspond to the four elements: green, red, yellow, and blue were matched with earth, fire, wind, and water respectively.

This concept might seem esoteric and speculative today, but it made sense at the time, standing in line with a general theory of how the universe operates. Notwithstanding, some observations by colour theorists of the Peripatetic school currently still have relevance, for example, the fact that darkness is not a colour but rather the absence of light.[4] This system was widely adopted by artists up until Isaac Newton replaced it with his general concept of color and the color wheel theory in 1672 (Hymann).

Learn more about Aristotle Color Theory here.

Hasan Ibn al-Haytham (965 – 1040 CE)

While most ancient Greek philosophies revolved around theological means and reason, Hasan Ibn al-Haytham was the first scientist in history who insisted that everything must be proven by means of scientific approaches. This meant that for his light and color theory, he conducted experiments and had his hypotheses peer-reviewed.[5]

In “The Book of Optics”, the Middle Eastern scholar refuted the ancient Greek concept that light is emitted from the eye and reflected by objects back to the eye. His conclusion was that vision occurs once the light is given off the sun, a candle, other luminous sources, or a reflection into the eye. Experimenting with glass spheres filled with water, he concluded that light was refracted by the water at multiple angles to produce different colors of the rainbow. In his light color theory, Ibn al-Haytham further provided evidence that the color and brightness of an object depended on the grade of brightness and surrounding colors.[6]

Many European scholars studied “The Book of Optik” by Ibn al-Haytham and recreated his experiments, which led to the usage of eyeglasses, telescopes, and cameras. Isaac Newton is the most famous color theorist to have used Ibn al-Haytham’s work but failed to reference him in his own writings.[7]

Learn more about Hasan Ibn al-Haytham Color Theory here.

Franciscus Aguilonius (1567 – 1617 CE)

In the early 17th century, Belgian Jesuit Franciscus Aguilonius contradicted Aristotle’s binary color theory by formulating a color system based on three primary colors (Hyman). While adhering to previous knowledge on the history of colours, e.g. keeping Aristotle’s two colors blue and yellow, he added red as a further primary color. This was the oldest system that included these three primary colors, which are still used in theories of the primary color circle today.

Aguilonius was convinced that the noble primary hues of red, yellow, and blue could be derived from the two extremes of white and black as stated in his work “Optics in Six Chapters”. When mixing the primary hues, composite colors, later known as secondary color design, could be acquired – orange, purple, and green as part of his harmonious color list.

In his science of color theory, Aguilonius considered white as pure and colors as gross matter, not yet understanding that light contained all colors of the spectrum and was not contaminated by gross matter. A further misconception was his light theory of color, stating that prisms were responsible for coloring the light, as opposed to the correct notion that color was composed of light.[8]

Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727 CE)

Isaac Newton completely redefined the theory of light and the history of colors when he first published his work “Optiks” in 1704. He had been familiar with the Latin translation of Al-Hasan Ibn al-Haytham’s texts and recreated several of the Middle Eastern scholar’s experiments. On this basis, Newton was able to prove that color was not composed of black and white but of white light alone.[9]

He further famously created the first color wheel, based on his observations of a glass prism producing a color spectrum ranging from red to violet. He came to the conclusion that the different colors were produced by various wavelengths and, in the tradition of Aristotle, selected seven hues. This concept brought an easy understanding of the color theory to the masses. Although Newton later found through experimentation that the rainbow is a continuous spectrum of color, he stuck to his seven-color concept.[10]

Rather than seeing white light as void of color, Newton further discovered that it was the combination of all colors across the color spectrum: When splitting the colors from across the spectrum, he was able to recombine these spectral colors to regain white light once again. When blending one color of the spectrum with another one, the result was a third color. Colors directly opposite of each other on the color wheel, such as red and green, canceled out each other’s hue.[11]

Newton was the first to consider red, green, and blue as primary colors. When combining blue and green light, the result was the color cyan, green, and red light mixed to give yellow, and red and blue light together had magenta appear. Based on these conclusions, Newton was able to create his color wheel in which the three primary colors were separated by the three secondary colors yellow, cyan, and magenta.[12]

Learn more about Isaac Newton Color Theory here.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749 – 1832 CE)

While Newton was solely interested in approaching color and light from a scientific viewpoint, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s color theory focused on the nature and the perception of colors. He dedicated his work “Theory of Colors”, first published in 1810, to a humanistic analysis and the connection between psychology and color theory.[13]

Goethe challenged Newton’s approach not only through his effective look at color matters. The German poet also believed that the prism, not the light, was responsible for the creation of color and disagreed further with Newton’s theory of color vision in which darkness was the absence of light. Instead, Goethe stuck to the ancient idea that color was composed through balancing light and darkness. He further applied Aristotle’s concept of blue and yellow as primary colors, while blue was the color to come from darkness and yellow was the color to come from light.[14]

The experimental approaches for the theory of color of the scientist and the poet differed strongly. While Newton adhered to an additive theory of color using prisms and light, in his color theory Goethe used a subtractive approach mixing the pigments of paints, which was more relevant to color theory in art. Goethe was convinced that in his subtractive color theory, the three primary colors could mix all visible colors including black: Combining paints of different colors would eventually result in a very dark tone by subtracting waves of light. Like Newton, Goethe presented his findings in a color wheel, but instead of red, green, and blue, Goethe’s color wheel included red, blue, and yellow as primary colors and orange, violet, and green as secondary colors.[15]

Even though Newton’s notion eventually proved to be the correct one in many respects, Goethe’s color theory was significant since it focused on the cognitive effect of color on humans. Goethe strongly disagreed that color was simply a scientific field since personal experience had to be taken into account. This marked the beginning of the modernist study of the psychological impact of color and the psychological color theory, which was welcomed by numberless artists.[16]

Learn more about Johann Wolfgang Goethe Color Theory here.

Tobias Mayer (1723 – 1762)

German astronomer and mathematician Tobias Mayer tried to create a unified notation for color with his color theory book “The Affinity of Color Commentary”, published posthumously in 1775. In his theory, colors were to be accurately defined according to how the human eye was able to perceive them. Consequently, he extended the analogous color wheel and invented a three-dimensional color triangle which also exemplified the variety of brightness for each color.

The corners of the triangle were kept in the three primary colors known from painting – red, yellow, and blue, while the corners were connected by mixing the opposite colours. Then triangles of different brightness were arranged upon each other, which made the definition of a color by its position in a three-dimensional space and understanding color theory from a new angle possible.[17]

Philipp Otto Runge (1777 – 1810)

The German painter and draughtsman Philipp Otto Runge’s interest in color was a result of his occupation as an artist and a particular interest in science. He considered a similar approach to Tobias Mayer’s when creating his spherical representation of the color spectrum and published his artist color theory in the manuscript “Color Sphere” in 1810.

As indicated in one letter to Goethe, he expanded the color theory circle with the triadic colors yellow, red, and blue into a sphere, in which black and white formed two opposing poles. Between the poles, colored bands were arranged. Yet like numerous illustrations of color systems prior to his theory, his color theory chart did not distinguish between brightness and saturation, so that the scheme included only little variation regarding color concentration.[18]

Learn more about Philipp Otto Runge color theory here.

Thomas Young (1773 – 1829 CE)

The British polymath Thomas Young made notable contributions to the fields of light, vision, energy, and solid mechanics. The wave theory of light is attributed to him, contrasting the particle theory by Isaac Newton. Accordingly, Young has been called the founder of physiological optics and the color light theory, a field that is concerned with the perceptual processes in the eye.[19]

Through experimentation, Young proved that, unlike Newton’s theory, light was not a particle, but that light came in waves. He further hypothesized that it was possible to generate any color by mixing varying proportions of the three additive primary colors of light, red, green, and blue. He further postulated that the human eye was only able to perceive the three primary colors in fluctuating proportions, combining them internally to a larger variety of colors.[20]

On the basis of Young’s findings on how the primary color combination is perceived, the German physicist and physician Hermann von Helmholtz proposed that the human eye encompasses three kinds of cones or receptors in the retina. He therewith augured the modern concept of color vision that there are three nerve fibers in the eye that are sensitive to particular wavelengths of the spectrum visible. Depending on the degree of stimulation, the nerve fiber cones make objects appear in certain colors.[21]

Learn more about Thomas Young color theory here.

Albert Henry Munsell (1858 – 1918 CE)

The American artist Albert Henry Munsell is famous for inventing a color combination theory named after him in the early 20th century, which was an early attempt to create an accurate system for numerically describing colors. Like scientists and artists before him, Munsell’s goal was to create a model displaying perceptually uniform steps, which was meant to serve as an accurate reference. Although starting from the perspective of an artist, his approach was exceptionally scientific, so he was the first one to combine the scientific color theory with the artistic one into a single theory to accurately identify every color that exists.[22]

One major accomplishment of the Albert Munsell color theory was that it divided the color space into three dimensions, which had not been outlined before: The value defined the brightness of the color, the hue determined the type of color (blue, green, etc.), while the chroma defined the saturation or purity of the color. As one moved up or down a line in a vertical direction, the value of the color either increased or decreased, while moving away from this vertical line, the saturation of the color changed. Hues changed when moving around the neutral line.

The Munsell color system achieved international acceptance since it allowed scientists to expand on it, as well as being simple enough for artists without a scientific background to apply it in their comparison of colors. It further proved to be a suitable colour theory for designers.[23]

Learn more about Albert Henry Munsell color theory here.

Johannes Itten (1888 – 1967)

The Swiss expressionist painter, designer, and theorist Johannes Itten, like Goethe, believed that it was the subjective experience of color that mattered. In his color theory, Itten was strongly influenced by his spiritual beliefs. His theoretical writings thus centered around how color could be combined to invoke feelings on the side of the viewer.

Itten’s contribution to the BauhausThe Bauhaus movement originated as a German school of the arts in the early 20th century. Founded by German architect Walter Gropius in 1919, the school was dedicated to uniting all branches of the arts under one roof. The Bauhaus acted as a hub for Europe's most experimental creatives, with well-known artist instructors like Wassily Kandinsky, Josef Albers, and Paul More color theory was the development of an innovative preliminary course, in which he taught students the basics of color and composition. He theorized seven types of color contrast including contrast by hue, by value, temperature, complements, simultaneous contrast, contrast by saturation, and contrast by extension.[24] To explain these ideas, Itten used a color sphere with the primary colors red, yellow, and blue, similar to the one invented by Runge.[25]

Johannes Itten’s color theory, his concept about color interactions, and his color palettes directly influenced color abstraction movements and Op Art. He was further the first to associate color palettes with four types of people and labeled these types with the names of seasons. After his death, these designations gained traction in the cosmetics industry. His color theory in makeup and seasonal analysis is still highly popular today.[26]

Learn more about Johannes Itten color theory here.

Josef Albers (1888 – 1976)

The German artist and educator Josef Albers, a student Itten’s at the BauhausThe Bauhaus movement originated as a German school of the arts in the early 20th century. Founded by German architect Walter Gropius in 1919, the school was dedicated to uniting all branches of the arts under one roof. The Bauhaus acted as a hub for Europe's most experimental creatives, with well-known artist instructors like Wassily Kandinsky, Josef Albers, and Paul More, unlike his teacher, did not try to establish a unified theory about why color behaves a certain way. Instead, Josef Albers’ color theory was more demonstrative, and he exemplified the dynamic nature of color when teaching the basics of color theory and color palette theory.

In his book “The Interaction of Color” published in 1963, he showed that the human perception of colors was strongly influenced by the context of each color. The book includes a description of the primary, secondary, and tertiary color scheme, alongside a range of connotations that he assigned to specific hues on his triangular color model.[27]

Learn more about Josef Albers color theory here.

The Illusion of Primary Colors: Color Theory Today

As the history of color theory shows, there has been a lot of discussion about the nature of primary colors. The reason is largely due to the confusion over subtractive color schemes and the additive theory of color. While in the art world, the three primary colors are usually represented in a red-yellow-blue color wheel, in the world of physics, the three primary colors are red, green, and blue.

Additive color theory mixing is understood to be the process of mixing the three physics primaries in different ways to create new hues. Each time a light source is added, the resulting color will be brighter and therefore closer to white. If all three colors are equally combined, the resulting color will be white. Subtractive color theory mixing on the other hand involves the three primaries from the art world: Ink or paint pigments are combined to absorb or selectively transmit light.

Today, art theorists widely agree that the concept of primary colors is useful for categorization and orientation, but that the choice of primary colors is quite arbitrary. Unlike Goethe and other artists believed, there is no such thing as pure primary colors since it would be possible to choose any three colors to mix a gamut of the spectrum. While some primary colors can mix a broad range of colors, it is impossible to mix the entire color spectrum based on a subtractive color mixing theory method.[28]

Primary Colors Depend on Device Type

The current theory is strongly influenced by the devices we use today. Desktop printers and other pigment color theory-based printing mechanisms with subtractive color mixing use an industry standard based on the CMYK color theory model with the colors cyan, magenta, yellow, and key/black. Color theory has it that with this specific set of colors, a broad range of colors can be mixed in ink. However, the three colors cyan, magenta, and yellow are not able to mix black, which is why printers will have a separate cartridge for black color.

Computer screens and other light-based display devices with additive color mixing use an industry standard based on the RGB color theory for primary colors, which are red, green, and blue. Almost all digital design tools will allow the user to define colors based on combining these three primary colors, while the exact amount of each color per pixel is decided both by the computer’s graphics card and the quality of the monitor.

Human Experience of Color

Not only do most scientists today agree on the nature of color today, but there is also rapport for the experience of color being a highly subjective and complex phenomenon. Unlike Goethe and Itten’s color theory, scientists today are convinced that it is impossible to create a universal color harmony theory. Instead, a number of factors will determine how an individual will respond to a specific color combination, such as age, gender, personal background, mood, as well as societal factors.[29]

Final Thoughts

With the knowledge about the history of color theory and being aware of the fact that there is no such thing as the correct primary colors, artists and designers should be free to trust more their own eyes and to be open for experimentation. You will get the best results using an experimental approach to what complementary colours are working for you, what a respective theory means for you, and how you want to apply a color wheel theory.

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FAQ: Quick Answers

Q: What is the history of color and its significance in art and science?

A: The history of color traces back to ancient civilizations, where colour theorists began exploring the emotional and psychological effects of colors, laying the groundwork for modern color theory in art and science.

Q : Who are some notable color theorists who have shaped our understanding of colors?

A: Notable color theorists include Isaac Newton, who first conceptualized the color wheel, and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, whose work on the theory of the color influenced both art and psychology.

Q: When was color first invented, and how has our perception of color evolved?

A: The concept of color as we understand it wasn’t “invented” but has been part of human perception since the beginning. The history of colours shows how our understanding and categorization have evolved, especially with the development of the color wheel by Isaac Newton.

Q: How did the color wheel come into existence, and who was behind its creation?

A: The color wheel was invented by Isaac Newton in the late 17th century. His experiments with prisms and light led to the understanding of color as a spectrum, revolutionizing the theories of colour.

Q: What role does color theory play in the field of art, and how has it influenced artistic expression?

A: Color theory plays a crucial role in art by guiding artists in their use of color to evoke emotions and convey messages. The history of colour in art shows how theories have shaped practices and styles, from Renaissance to modern digital art.

Q: Can you explain the colour definition in art and how it differs from general perceptions of color?

A: The colour definition in art involves not just the hue but also the value and intensity of color as it relates to composition and expression. This definition is more nuanced than general perceptions, focusing on the emotional and symbolic uses of color.

Q: What is the significance of colour in history, and how has it impacted cultural and societal developments?

A: Colour in history has profound significance, symbolizing power, status, and emotions in various cultures. The history of colour reflects its impact on fashion, art, and symbolismSymbolism was a late 19th-century art movement of French, Belgian, and Russian origin. Poets and fine artists were seeking to represent absolute truths using metaphorical images in reaction against realism and naturalism. Content of both images and poetry were suggestive contents to express mystical ideas, emotions, and states of mind. Paul Gauguin, Nave Nave Mahana (1869) The term was coined More, influencing societal trends and cultural developments.

Q: How have theories of colour evolved from ancient times to the present day?

A: Theories of colour have evolved significantly, from Aristotle’s early speculations on color being a direct result of light and darkness to modern understandings of color psychology and its application in design and marketing. This evolution reflects a deepening knowledge of how colors interact and affect us.

Q: What impact does the history of colors have on contemporary design and psychology?

A: The history of colors informs contemporary design and psychology by providing a rich context for the emotional and cognitive effects of color. Designers and psychologists draw on historical theories and applications to create environments and products that resonate on a psychological level.

Q: Who were the pioneers in the history of colour theory, and what were their contributions?

A: Pioneers in the history of colour theory include Isaac Newton, who introduced the idea of the spectrum of colors, and Albert Munsell, who developed a color classification system. Their contributions laid the foundation for understanding color relationships and the visual effects of color combinations.

Q: How does the colour of history influence our understanding of past events and cultures?

A: The colour of history influences our understanding by adding a layer of interpretation to historical events and cultures. Colors used in art, clothing, and symbols can reveal insights into societal values, beliefs, and emotional states of the past, offering a vivid window into how people lived and thought.

Q: In what ways have colour theorists contributed to our current understanding of visual aesthetics?

A: Colour theorists have contributed by developing frameworks and principles that explain how colors interact, influence mood, and affect perception. Their work has been instrumental in fields ranging from art and design to marketing and environmental design, shaping our current understanding of visual aesthetics.

Q: What are the key milestones in the history of colour, and how have they influenced modern color theory?

A: Key milestones include Newton’s prism experiments leading to the color spectrum, Goethe’s color psychology, and the BauhausThe Bauhaus movement originated as a German school of the arts in the early 20th century. Founded by German architect Walter Gropius in 1919, the school was dedicated to uniting all branches of the arts under one roof. The Bauhaus acted as a hub for Europe's most experimental creatives, with well-known artist instructors like Wassily Kandinsky, Josef Albers, and Paul More school’s application of color in art and architecture. These milestones have profoundly influenced modern color theory, integrating scientific, psychological, and aesthetic perspectives.

The History of Color Theory: Must-Know Facts for Creatives

Table of Contents

What is Color Theory?

The History of Color Theory: The Context